16: The Cold War and the Americas (1945 – 1981)
This section focuses on the development and impact of the Cold War on the region. Most of the second half of the 20th century was dominated by the global conflict of the Cold War. Within the Americas, some countries were closely allied to the United States and some took sides reluctantly. Many remained neutral or sought to avoid involvement in Cold War struggles. A few, influenced by the Cuban Revolution, instituted socialist governments. No nation, however, escaped the pressures of the Cold War, which had a significant impact on the domestic and foreign policies of the countries of the region.
US Presidents:
-1945-1953: Harry S. Truman
-1953-1961: Dwight D. Eisenhower
-1961-1963: John F. Kennedy
-1963-1969: Lyndon B. Johnson
-1969-1974: Richard M. Nixon
-1974-1977: Gerald R. Ford
-1977-1981: Jimmy Carter
-1981-1989: Ronald Reagan
Truman: containment and its implication for the Americas
Containment: a policy intended to prevent any further expansion of communism beyond its present borders. The Truman administration believed this could be applied through the military and financial support to countries threatened by communism -Containing the USSR became a key feature of President Truman’s foreign policy in 1947 when George Kennan (political advisor based at the US embassy in Moscow) sent his famous ‘Long Telegram’ to Truman which argued that the USSR considered itself to be at war with capitalism, and it intended to spread communist ideology around the world -Truman Doctrine : On March 12, 1947, Truman made a speech asking congress to approve $400 million in economic and military aid to Greece and Turkey, emphasizing the communist threat to these strategically important states. Congress granted the aid and historians have cited this as the official declaration of the Cold War.-As a direct consequence of Truman’s proclamation, new security departments were established including the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) and the National Security Council (NSC) -The doctrine became the basis of US foreign policy for the next 40 years.
Historiography:
oChristine Bragg suggested that the Truman Doctrine was an overreaction and ‘an attempt to talk up the threat from the Soviet Union. Yet, others view it as an inevitable development in a deep ideological conflict between communism and capitalism, while highlighting US hypocrisy in offering support to all anti-communist regimes. In particular, Oliver Edwards draws attention to Truman’s support for Greece and Turkey, regimes that ‘imprisoned and intimidated their political opponents, exhibiting some of the very characteristics which Truman had attributed to communism in his speech’ oLater, revisionist historians also considered economic factors, these included the US desire to develop world markets. Thomas McCormick has highlighted the influence of big business and the military-industrial sector, arguing that they pushed the US government towards greater confrontation, as a means of protecting their own economic interests and further promoting the influence of capitalism.-The Marshall Plan : provided financial support to war-torn Europe and at least in theory, all countries were eligible for this assistance. However, there were conditions attached that made it practically impossible for the communist states of Eastern Europe to apply for the aid.oThe chief reason was that countries would have to tell the US how they intended to spend the money, and agree to open up their economies, effectively allowing capitalism -Berlin Blockade: The western powers announced their intention to create Trizonia, in which France would join a Western currency zone in a further step towards a united West German state. On 18 June 1948, a new currency – the Deutschmark – was introduced. This was done without consulting the USSR. In response, on 23 June, the Soviets blockaded Berlin, cutting off all road and rail access from the West. In reaction to the blockade, the US launched the Berlin Airlift in which allied aircrafts flew supplies into Berlin. The blockade was eventually lifted on 12 May 1949 1 / 2
-NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization – a military alliance to further support efforts at containment.NATO was based on the principle of collective security, the terms of NATO stated that an attack against one member nation would be viewed as an attack against all.-NSC-69 (document): 1950 - committed the US to assisting nations anywhere in the world that were threatened by Soviet aggression. It also advocated the tripling of America’s defense budged to build up a massive US military presence to combat Soviet threat. The document signaled a new direction for the US Cold War strategy. The policy of containment had focused on keeping communism within its existing postwar borders; now NSC-68 spoke of ‘rolling back’ the frontiers of communism, and even liberating countries by force
Historiography:
oThe secretary of state, Dean Acheson, later referred to NSC-68 as a ‘blunt but effective propaganda tool’ designed to get public opinion behind higher military funding
Implications for the Americas:
US -It meant the end of its traditional policy of isolationism, and the Marshall Plan provided the US with economic stability and growth. Containment also guaranteed and increased the US government’s commitment to military spending. It also heightened fears of the communist threat within the US and, unleashed the McCarthy era.-As the Cold War developed, the US grew increasingly concerned about the risk of pro-communist regimes appearing in the Americas. The Truman doctrine had set a precedent for supplying aid to any regime that was fighting communism or experiencing internal unrest that might lead it away from the US sphere of influence.-The US had promoted a hemispheric defense policy since the mid-19 th century, and had been particularly alarmed before WW2 by approaches on the part of Nazi Germany regarding military cooperation with some Central and South American governments The Rio Treaty, 1947 -The treaty was signed by all 21 republics in the Americas and basically provided a legal basis for US military intervention in any Latin American country. The Rio treaty contained bilateral accords permitting military officers and technical personnel from various states to attend training courses in America. In 1948, the Organization of American States (OAS) was set up and in 1951 the Mutual Security Act, which laid the groundwork for full US cooperation with Latin American states. Through these treaties and arrangements, the US ensured that its interests in Latin America were protected, often by military dictators.The rise of McCarthyism and its effects on domestic and foreign policies of the US McCarthyism Wisconsin senator Joseph McCarthy encouraged anti-communist sentiment by declaring that the US was being overrun by ‘Reds’ who were destroying the country’s greatness.The Red Scare -After 1945, fears about communism grew. The Gouzenko spy scandal in Canada had caused serious concern on both sides of the Atlantic, especially as Canada had been involved in atomic research during WW2. People in key positions in the US and Britain were suspected of involvement in Soviet espionage. After a raid on the New York offices, the pro-communist magazine Amerasia unearthed classified government documents in March 1945, a fear of communism taking hold in North America developed rapidly. This marked the start of the ‘Red Scare’.Executive Order 9835 -In March 1947, Truman signed the order which introduced formal loyalty tests for govermne tmeployees. Any links with communists, or groups believed to have communist sympathies, led to dismissal – although a Loyalty Review Board was established to deal with appeals. Even expressing an interest in Russian culture was grounds for suspicion, as fears of communist infiltration spread across the US.Witch Hunts -In 1950, McCarthy began hearings on alleged communist activities in areas including the military, government administration, the media, science, and industry.Spies and lies -In January 1950, Alger Hiss (high-ranking official in the State department) was found guilty of perjury for passing classified US information to the Soviet Union during the late 1930s.
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