TYPESpOFpATTENTION - • Takespplacepwhenpwepblockpoutpcert ainpfeat...

CHANGE

BLINDNESS

VS

TYPESpOFpATTENTION

• SelectivepAttention

• Takespplacepwhenpwepblockpoutpcert ainpfeaturespofpourpenvironmentpandp focusponponepparticularpfeature,plikept hepconversationpyouparephavingpwithp yourpfriend.

• DividedpAttention

• Dopyoupeverpdoptwopthingspatponce?pIfp you'replikepmostppeople,pyoupdopthatpapl ot.pMaybepyouptalkptopapfriendponpthepp honepwhilepyou'repstraighteningpuppt hephouse.pNowadays, ptherepareppeo plepeverywhereptextingponptheirppho nespwhilepthey'repspendingptimepwit hpsomeone.pWhenpwepareppayingpatt entionptoptwopthingspatponce,pwepare pusingpdividedpattention.

• SustainedpAttention

• Arepyoupsomeone pwhopcanpworkpatpo neptaskpforpaplongptime?pIfpyoupare,py ouparepgoodpatpusingpsustainedpatten tion.pThisphappenspwhenpwepcanpconc entrateponpaptask,pevent,porpfeaturepi npourpenvironmentpforpapprolongedpp eriodpofptime

• ExecutivepAttention

• Ispparticularlypgoodpatpblockingpoutp unimportantpfeaturespofpthepenviron mentpandpattendingptopwhatpreallypm atters.pItpispthepattentionpwepusepwhe npweparepmakingpstepsptowardpappar ticularpend.• Forpexample,pmaybepyoupneedptopfini shpapresearchpprojectpbypthependpofpthe pday.pYoupmightpstartpbypmakingpappla n,porpyoupmightpjumppintopitpandpatta ckpdifferentppartspofpitpasptheypcome.pYoupkeepptrackpofpwhatpyou'vepdone,p whatpmorepyouphaveptopdo,pandphow pyouparepprogressing.pYouparepfocusi ngponpthesepthingspinporderptopreachpt hepgoalpofpapfinishedpresearchppaper .pThatpispusingpyourpexecutivepattent ion.ATTENTION pCHANGES pINpLIFE

pMULTITASKING Topmultitaskpmeansptopdoptwoporpmoreptaskspatpt hepsameptime.pWhenpJohnpispmultitasking,pheph aspdividedpattention.pJohnpispnotpableptopgivepei therpactivityphispcompletepandpundividedpatte ntion.pHepcannotpfullypwatchphispprogram,pandp hepcannotpfullyppaypattentionptophisphomewor k.pHowpdoespthispaffectpJohn?pLet'spfindpout.p( dividedpattention) Theppomodoro ptechnique ThepPomodoro ptechniquepispapsimplepyetpeffect iveptoolpforpfocusedpworkpwithpplannedpbreakspi npbetween.pFrancescopCirillopcoinedptheptermp“p omodoro,”pwhichptranslatesptoptomato,pinpthepla tep1980spafterptheptomato- shapedptimerphepusedpaspapuniversitypstudent.pSo ,phowpdoespitpwork?pLet’spbreakpdownpappomod

oropintervalpsteppbypstep:

• Choosepyourpassignment/workptopdo • Setptheptimerptop25pminutes • Workpuntilptheptimerprings • Takepapfive-minutepbreak • Takeplongerpbreaksp(15ptop30pminutes)pforp everypfourppomodoro pintervals

• So,pwhatpispchangepblindness?pChangep blindnesspispthepinabilityptopdetectpminorp changespthatpoccurpwithinpthepvisualpfiel d.pMorepsimplypput,pitpoccurspwhenpanpindi vidualpdoespnotpnoticepapchangepinpsom ethingpthey'repactivelypwatching.• Inattentionalpblindnesspoccurspwhenpap personpispfocusingponpanotherptaskpand p AttentionalpProcesses 1 / 4

thuspdoesn'tpnoticepthepchangespthatpta kepplaceparoundpthem.pAspwithpchangepbli ndness,pchangespthatpoccurpduringpinatt entionalpblindnessparepoftenpobviouspafte rpbeingppointedpout.pChoosingptopfocusp onponepstimuluspandpfilteringpoutpothers pispcalledpattentionalpselection.pInporderpt opunderstandpthepdifferencepbetweenpbl indnesspversuspinattentionalpblindness,p it'spimportantptopconsiderpwherepthepobs erver'spfocuspispat.CausespofpChangepBlindness • Changepblindnesspoccurspforpmultiplepre asons.pPerhapspthepmostpcommon preas onpinvolvespaphuman'splimitedpattention presources.pThephuman pbrainpispunablepto pfocusponpeverythingpinpitspenvironmentp atpapsingleptime.• Previouspexperiencespmaypalsopresultpinp changepblindness.pIfpsomeone pseespthep samepscenepdaypafterpday,ptheypmaypco meptopexpectpthatpitpwillpnotpchange.• Howpanpobjectpisppresentedpmaypalsopch angepwhetherpchangepblindnesspoccurs.• Seniorpcitizenspexperiencepchangepblind nesspmorepoften.pConditionspthatpimpac tpattention,psuchpaspattentionpdeficitpdis ordersporpdrugpuse,pmaypalsopinfluencep thepratespatpwhichpchangepblindnesspca npoccur.ExperimentsponpChangepBlindness • Changepblindnesspwaspfirstpproposedpinp theplatep1990spbypRonaldpRensinkpandphisp team.pSincepthen,pmultiplepexperimentsp havepbeenpconductedptopbetterpunderst andpthepsituationspthatpchangepblindnes spoccurspandpwhypitphappens.pApfewpexa mplespofpthesepexperimentsparepprovide

dpinptheptablepbelow:

AttentionalpBlink Attentionalpblinkp(AB)pispapphenomenon pobser vedpinpRapidpSerialpVisualpPresentationp(RSVP) .Whenpyoupshiftpyourpfocuspfromponepthingptopa nother,paptinypgappinpattentionpcalledpattentiona lpblinkpispcreated.pItponlyplastspforpaboutphalfpapseco nd,psopwepbarelypnoticepit.• Havepyoupeverptriedptoppaypattentionptop multiplepthingspatpaptime,ponlyptopfindpthatp youpcan'tpfocuspcompletelyponpanypofpth em?pThepmindphaspaplimitedpcapacitypfo rpattention.pItpsiftspthroughplarge amountspofpinputpsopwepcanpfocusponpw hat'spimportantpandpignorepdistractions;ph owever,psomepofpthesepdistractionspmaypb epimportant.• Forpexample,pimaginepthatpyou'repdrivingp downpthepstreetpatprushphour,pandpnoticep thatpthepdriverpinpfrontpofpyouphaspslam medponphispbrakes.pApsplit- secondplater,pwhilepyouparepstillpbusyppro cessingpwhatpjustphappened,papdeerpdar tspontoptheproadpfrompthepright.pAtpthisppo int,pit'sphighlypunlikelypthatpyoupwillpbepa bleptopprocesspthepsecondpeventpwithpen oughptimeptopreactpproperly.WhatpCausespAttentionalpBlink?

• Attentionalpcapacityptheory:pThisptheoryp

focusesponpattentionpaspapresource.pItps uggestspthatptargetponepwillptakepupppre ciouspattentionalpresources,pmakingpitpdiff icultptopprocessptargetptwopforpupptophalf papsecond.

• Inhibitionptheory:pAccordingptopthepinhi

bitionptheory,pwhenpdetectingpthepfirstptar get,pthepmindpfocusesponpidentifyingpinf ormation,psuchpasptheptarget'spcolorpan dpshape,porpwhetherpitpispapletterporpnum ber.pForpaboutphalfpapsecondpafterward,p yourpmindpsuppressespincomingpinform ationptoppreventpconfusion.pInpotherpword s,pthepattentionalpblinkpoccurspduringpthep timepyou'repthinkingpaboutpwhatpyou've pseen.

• Delaypofpprocessingptheory:pThisptheoryp

suggestspthatpwhenpyou'repbusypthinkingp aboutptargetpone,pyoupessentiallyp'forget'p aboutptargetptwo.

• Interferenceptheory:pAspstatedpinpthepin

terferenceptheory,pitemspshownpinpapser iesparepcompetingpwithpeachpotherpinpyou rplimitedpworkingpmemory.pTherefore,pcon fusionpcanpoccurpwhenpyouptryptoprecallp whatpyoupsaw.• Two-

stagepprocessingptheory:pAccordingptopth

isptheory,ptherepareptwopstagespinvolved pinpprocessingpapseriespofpitems.pTheprapi d- detectionpstagepoccurspwhenpyou'repqui cklypanalyzingpitemspforpthepfeaturespyo u'repseeking.pInporderptoppreventpdecaypi npyourpworkingpmemory, pyouptransferpthe pfeaturesptopthepcapacity- plimitedpstage,pwherepdeeperpprocessing poccurs.pHowever,pyourpmindpcanponlypp rocessponepthingpatpaptimepduringpthispst age.pIfptargetptwopappearspwhilepyou'repsti llpinpstagepone,ptheptargetpremainspinpthispsta ge,pwherepitpispvulnerableptopinterferenc epbypotherpitemspforpaboutphalfpapsecond. 2 / 4

Two-stagepprocessingptheory

Whilepallpofptheseptheoriesparepsupportedpbype xperiments,pthepsupportpdependsponpthepspeci ficpprocedurespused.pHowever,presearcherspdopa greepthatpattentionalpblinkpcanphavepreal- pworldpconsequences.pInterestingly,ponepstudy pshowedpthatpattentionalpblinkpcanpbepreducedp inpdurationpbyp'training'pourpbrains.pResearchersp alsopfoundpthatppeoplepwhopplayedpfast- pacedpvideopgamesphadpapquickerpattentionalp blinkprecoverypthanpthosepwhopplayedppuzzlepga mes.pThepneedptopquicklypidentifypandpeliminate poneptargetpafterpanotherpprovidedpincentivepfor pthepbrainptopreducepattentionalpblink.JOHNpRIDLEYpSTROOP • anpAmericanpPsychologistpwhopstudiedpr eactionptimespofpindividualspasppartpofphispw ork • HepcreatedpthepStrooppTestp– papshortpandpsimpleptestpthatpcouldpeasily pshowphowpquickpsomeone’spreactionpti mepwas • Inp1935,pHeppublishedphispfindings pWhatpispthepStrooppEffect?• ThepStrooppEffectprefersptopthepCognitivep andpExperimentalpPsychologypfindingpth atpmoreptimepispneededptopnamepthepcol orpofpapwordpwhenpthepfontpcolorpandpcol orpnamepdopnotpmatchpthanpwhenpthepfon tpcolorpandpthepnamepdopmatchp(Figurep 1.).pThispispknownpaspcognitivepinterfere nce.• Thispsimpleptestpdemonstratesphowpsomepi nformationpispprocessedpnearlypeffortle sslypwhilepothersprequirepmorepattentio nptopsortpwhilepansweringpthepmostpbasi cpquestions.3pElementspofpStroop’spOriginalpExperiment

• Aplistpofpcolorpnamespprintedpinpblackpink

• Blue,porange,pgreen,pyellow,pgray

• Aplistpofpcolorpnamespprintedpinpinkpofpap

differentpcolor

• Apseriespofpcoloredpsquaresporp'blocks'ponp

apsheetpofppaper.pNopwordspatpall

• Bypcomparingpthepperformancepofppeopl epinpthesepthreeptasks.pStrooppcanpmakep inferencesponpindividual’spprocessingpa ndpspeed • Frompthispseeminglypsimplepresearch,pap surprisinglypinsightfulptestpwaspdeveloped.• ThepStrooppTest,palsopknownpaspthepStropp ColorpWordpTest,porpStrooppEffectpTest,pispap neuropsychologicalptestpusedptopmeasu repinhibitionpofpcognitivepinterference,pf rontalplobepfunctioning,pselectivepattent ion,pandpcognitivepflexibility.• Inpsimplepterms,pitpmeasuresphowpwellpwep purposelypfocusponponlyponeppiecepofpinf ormationp(color)pwhilepignoringpotherpinf ormationpwepusuallypprocesspautomatic allyp(readingpwords).pThisptestpandpvariat ionsphavepbeenpstudiedpextensively,pinclu dingpthepnewestpformspofpbrainpimaging,pin cludingpCAT,pMRI,pfMRI,pandpPETpscans.WhatpispSelectivepAuditorypAttention?

COCKTAIL pPARTYpEFFECT • Inpthepearlyp1950s,pcognitivepscientistpC olinpCherrypfirstpbeganpresearchingpwha tphepreferredptopaspthepcocktailppartypprob lem.pCherrypwondered phowpitpwaspthatp peoplepcouldphavepprivateporpindividualp conversationspamidstpaplargepgrouppofpp eoplepwhopwerepallptalkingpatpthepsamepti me.pAspapresultpofphispresearch,pCherrypca meptopconclusionpthatpthepbody'spaudito rypsystempwaspcapablepofpfilteringpoutpo therpsoundspinporderptopactivelypfocuspo nponepconversation.pOutpofpthispinitialpres earch,pCherrypandpotherpscientistspbega nptopdelvepdeeperpintophowpthepbrainpre ceives,porganizes,pandpprocessespaudito rypinformation. 3 / 4

SelectivepAuditorypAttention

InpBroadbent'spfilterpmodel,pforpexample,pscientistp DonaldpBroadbentpexpandedponpCherry'sprese archpandpconcludedpthatpthepbrainpprocessespi nformationpinpstages,pultimatelypblockingpoutpu nnecessarypsound.pIfpyoupwerepinpapcrowdedpan dpnoisypsubwaypcar,pforpexample,pyoupwouldpha veptoppaypverypclosepattentionptopwhatptheppers onpnextptopyoupispsaying.pBroadbent'spfilterpmo delpsuggestspthatpatpsomeppointpinpthepreceivingp process,pyourpbrainpwouldpblockpoutpunnecessar ypinformationpandpallowpinponlypthepinformationp thatpitphaspdeemed pimportant.CONFIRMATION pBIAS Ispwhenpselectivepattentionpispusedptopproducepap desirablepinterpretationpofpapmessage pthatpvali datespapperson'spbeliefs.Confirmationpbiaspispnotpalwayspquitepsopdram atic,pbutpthispexamplepshouldpemphasizepthepp otentialpdangerspofpselectivephearing,pwhichpc annotpalwayspbeptrustedpaspapfactualpinterpret ationpofpanpexperienceporpevent.pThispalsophigh lightsponepofpthepmoreprecentpdevelopmentspinp research,pwhichpsuggestspthatpselectivepauditory pattentionpispverypoftenpslantedptowardspappotent ialprewardporppositivepoutcome.SIGNAL pDETECTION pTHEORY • Thepdetectionpofpthepstimuluspdependsponp bothpthepintensitypofpthepstimuluspandpp hysical/psychologicalpstatepofpthepindivi dual Wherepdoespsignalpdetectionptheorypcomespf rom?• Psychologypispinterestedpinpmeasuringpourp sensorypsensitivity.pThepleadingptheorypisp therepwaspapthresholdp– pminimum pvaluepbelowpwhichppeoplepco uldpnotpdetectpapstimulus.pHowever,pitph aspchangedpfrompdeterminingpapthreshol dptoptestingphowpobserversprespondptopsi gnals • Theprelationshippbetweenpthepstrengthpofp thepsignalpandptheplevelpofpalertness.pThisp ispwerepsignalpdetectionptheorypwaspborn

Originspofptheptheory • DuringpWorldpWarpII,pthepsignalpdetectionp theorypwaspusedptophelppwithpradar,pandp thepprocesspdeterminedpradarpfrompotherp backgroundpnoise.• GustavpFechnerpdevelopedpthepsignalpd etectionptheorypinp1860.• Inp1966,ptwoppsychophysicspusedpthepsi gnalpdetectionptheory.pJohnpSwetspandpD avidpGreenpfeltphowpsignalpdetectionpthe orypwaspbetterpthanpthepotherpoptionspbei ngpofferedpatptheptime.TestingpSignalpDetectionpTheory Whenptestingpthepsignalpdetectionptheory,papsi gnalpispgivenporpnot,pandpthepobserverprecogni zespthepsignalporpnot.pThepoutcomespofpthepsign alpdetectionpexperimentparephit,pmiss,pfalsepala rm,pandpcorrectprejection.

• / 4